Climatic Classification—
The Köppen System

A widely used classification of world climates based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation was devised by the famous German scientist Waldimir Köppen (1846–1940). Initially published in 1918, the original Köppen classification system has since been modified and refined. Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations throughout the world, Köppen related the distribution and type of native vegetation to the various climates. In this way, climatic boundaries could be approximated where no climatological data were available.

Köppen’s scheme employs five major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter:

A Tropical moist climate: All months have an average temperature above 18°C (64°F). Since all months are warm, there is no real winter season.

B Dry climates: Deficient precipitation most of the year. Potential evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation.

C Moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters: warm-to-hot summers with mild winters. The average temperature of the coldest month is below 18°C (64°F) and above –3°C (27°F).

D Moist mid-latitude climates with severe winters: Warm summers and cold winters. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds 10°C (50°F), and the coldest monthly average drops below –3°C (27°F).

E Polar climates: Extremely cold winters and summers. The average temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F). Since all months are cold, there is no real summer season.

Each group contains subregions that describe special regional characteristics, such as seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation. In a mountainous country, where rapid changes in elevation bring about sharp changes in climatic type, delineating the climatic regions is impossible. These regions are designated by the letter H, for highland climates. 

Köppen’s system has been criticized primarily because his boundaries (which relate vegetation to monthly temperature and precipitation values) do not correspond to the natural boundaries of each climatic zone. In addition, the Köppen system implies that there is a sharp boundary between climatic zones, when in reality there is a gradual transition.

A popular modification of the Köppen system was developed by the American climatologist Glenn T. Trewartha, who redefined some of the climatic types and altered the climatic world map by putting more emphasis on the lengths of growing seasons and average summer temperatures.

TROPICAL MOIST CLIMATES (GROUP A)

General characteristics: year-round warm temperatures (all months have a mean temperature above 18°C, or 64°F); abundant rainfall (typical annual average exceeds 150 cm or 59 in.).

Extent: northward and southward from the equator to about latitude 15° to 25°.

Major types (based on the seasonal distribution of rainfall): tropical wet (Af), tropical monsoon (Am), and tropical wet and dry (Aw).

At low elevations near the equator, in particular, the Amazon lowland of South America, the Congo River Basin of Africa, and the East Indies from Sumatra toNew Guinea, high temperatures, and abundant yearly rainfall combine to produce a dense, broadleaf, evergreen forest called a tropical rain forest. Here, many different plant species, each adapted to different light intensity, present a crudely layered appearance of diverse vegetation. In the forest, little sunlight is able to penetrate to the ground through the thick crown cover. As a result, little plant growth is found on the forest floor. However, at the edge of the forest, or where a clearing has been made, abundant sunlight allows for the growth of tangled shrubs and vines, producing an almost impenetrable jungle. 

Within the tropical wet climate* (Af), seasonal temperature variations are small (normally less than 3°C) because the noon sun is always high and the number of daylight hours is relatively constant. However, there is a greater variation in temperature between day (average high about 32°C) and night (average low about 22°C) than there is between the warmest and coolest months. This is why people remark that winter comes to the tropics at night. The weather here is monotonous and sultry. There is little change in temperature from one day to the next. Furthermore, almost every day, towering cumulus clouds form and produce heavy, localized showers by early afternoon. As evening approaches, the showers usually end and skies clear. Typical annual rainfall totals are greater than 150 cm (59 in.) and, in some cases, especially along the windward side of hills and mountains, the total may exceed 400 cm (157 in.).

The high humidity and cloud cover tend to keep maximum temperatures from reaching extremely high values. In fact, summer afternoon temperatures are normally higher in middle latitudes than here. Night-time cooling can produce saturation and, hence, a blanket of dew and—occasionally—fog covers the ground.

As heavy rain falls on the soil, the waterworks it's way downward, removing nutrients in a process called leaching. Strangely enough, many of the nutrients needed to sustain the lush forest actually come from dead trees that decompose. The roots of the living trees absorb this matter before the rains leach it away. When the forests are cleared for agricultural purposes, or for the timber, what is left is a thick red soil called laterite. When exposed to the intense sunlight of the tropics, the soil may harden into a bricklike consistency, making cultivation almost impossible.

Köppen classified tropical wet regions, where the monthly precipitation totals drop below 6 cm for perhaps one or two months, as tropical monsoon climates (Am). Here, yearly rainfall totals are similar to those of the tropical wet climate, usually exceeding 150 cm a year. Because the dry season is brief and copious rains fall throughout the rest of the year, there is sufficient soil moisture to maintain the tropical rain forest through the short dry period. Tropical monsoon climates can be seen along the coasts of Southeast Asia, India, and in northeastern South America.

Poleward of the tropical wet region, total annual rainfall diminishes, and there is a gradual transition from the tropical wet climate to the tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw), where a distinct dry season prevails. Even though the annual precipitation usually exceeds 100 cm, the dry season, where the monthly rainfall is less than 6 cm (2.4 in.), lasts for more than two months. Because tropical rain forests cannot survive this “drought,” the jungle gradually gives way to tall, coarse savanna grass, scattered with low, drought-resistant deciduous trees. The dry season occurs during the winter (low sun period), when the region is under the influence of the subtropical highs. In summer, the ITCZ moves poleward, bringing with it heavy precipitation, usually in the form of showers. Rainfall is enhanced by slow-moving shallow lows that move through the region.

Tropical wet-and-dry climates not only receive less total rainfall than the tropical wet climates, but the rain that does occur is much less reliable, as the total rainfall often fluctuates widely from one year to the next. In the course of a single year, for example, destructive floods may be followed by serious droughts. As with tropical wet regions, the daily range of temperature usually exceeds the annual range, but the climate here is much less monotonous. There is a cool season in winter when the maximum temperature averages 30°C to 32°C (86°F to 90°F). At night, the low humidity and clear skies allow for rapid radiational cooling and, by early morning, minimum temperatures drop to 20°C (68°F) or below.

the principal areas having a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw) are those located in western-Central America, in the region both north and south of the Amazon Basin (South America), in southcentral and eastern Africa, in parts of India and Southeast Asia, and in northern Australia. In many areas (especially within India and Southeast Asia), the marked variation in precipitation is associated with the monsoon—the seasonal reversal of winds. the monsoon circulation is due in part to differential heating between landmasses and oceans. During winter in the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow outward, away from a cold, shallow high-pressure area centered over continental Siberia. These downslope, relatively dry northeasterly winds from the interior provide India and Southeast Asia with generally fair weather and the dry season. In summer, the wind-flow pattern reverses as air flows into a developing thermal low over the continental interior. The humid air from the water rises and condenses, resulting in heavy rain and the wet season.
An example of a station with a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw) is Located at latitude 11°N in west Africa, Timbo, Guinea, receives an annual average of 163 cm (64 in.) of rainfall. Notice that the rainy season is during the summer when the ITCZ has migrated to its most northern position. Note also that practically no rain falls during the months of December, January, and February, when the region comes under the domination of the subtropical high-pressure area and its sinking air.

The monthly temperature patterns at Timbo are characteristic of most tropical wet-and-dry climates. As spring approaches, the noon sun is slightly higher, and the more intense sunshine produces greater surface heating and higher afternoon temperatures—usually above 32°C (90°F) and occasionally above 38°C (100°F)—creating hot, dry desertlike conditions. After this brief hot season, a persistent cloud cover and the evaporation of rain tends to lower the temperature during the summer. The warm, muggy weather of summer often resembles that of the tropical wet climate (Af). The rainy summer is followed by a warm, relatively dry period, with afternoon temperatures usually climbing above 30°C (86°F). Poleward of the tropical wet-and-dry climate, the dry season becomes more severe. Clumps of trees are more isolated and the grasses dominate the landscape. When the potential annual water loss through evaporation and transpiration exceeds the annual water gain from precipitation, the climate is described as dry.

DRY CLIMATES (GROUP B)

General characteristics: deficient precipitation most of the year; potential evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation.

Extent: the subtropical deserts extend from roughly 20° to 30° latitude in large continental regions of the middle latitudes, often surrounded by mountains.

Major types: arid (BW)—the “true desert”—and semiarid (BS).

According to Köppen, the dry regions of the world occupy more land area (about 26 percent) than any other major climatic type. Within these dry regions, a deficiency of water exists. Here, the potential annual loss of water through evaporation is greater than the annual water gained through precipitation. Thus, classifying a climate as dry depends not only on precipitation totals but also on temperature, which greatly influences evaporation. For example, 35 cm (14 in.) of precipitation in a hot climate will support only sparse vegetation, while the same amount of precipitation in northcentral Canada will support a conifer forest. In addition, a region with a low annual rainfall total is more likely to be classified as dry if the majority of precipitation is concentrated during the warm summer months when evaporation rates are greater.

Precipitation in a dry climate is both meager and irregular. Typically, the lower the average annual rainfall, the greater its variability. For example, a station that reports an annual rainfall of 5 cm (2 in.) may actually measure no rainfall for two years; then, in a single downpour, it may receive 10 cm (4 in.).

The major dry regions of the world can be divided into two primary categories. The first includes the area of the subtropics (between latitude 15° and 30°), where the sinking air of the subtropical anticyclones produces generally clear skies. The second is found in the continental areas of the middle latitudes. Here, far removed from a source of moisture, areas are deprived of precipitation. Dryness here is often accentuated by mountain ranges that produce a rain shadow effect.

Köppen divided dry climates into two types based on their degree of dryness: the arid (BW)* and the semiarid, or steppe (BS). These two climatic types can be divided even further. For example, if the climate is hot and dry with a mean annual temperature above 18°C (64°F), it is either BWh or BSh (the h is for heiss, meaning hot in German). On the other hand, if the climate is cold (in winter, that is) and dry with a mean annual temperature below 18°C, then it is either BWk or BSk (where the k is for kalt, meaning cold in German).

The arid climates (BW) occupy about 12 percent of the world’s land area. this climatic type is found along the west coast of South America and Africa and over much of the interior of Australia. Notice, also, that a swath of arid climate extends from northwest Africa all the way into central Asia. In North America, the arid climate extends from northern Mexico into the southern interior of the United States and northward along the leeward slopes of the Sierra Nevada. This region includes both the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the Great Basin.

The southern desert region of North America is dry because it is dominated by the subtropical high most of the year, and winter storm systems tend to weaken before they move into the area. The northern region is in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada. These regions are deficient in precipitation all year long, with many stations receiving less than 13 cm (5 in.) annually. As noted earlier, the rain that does fall is spotty, often in the form of scattered summer afternoon showers. Some of these showers can be downpours that change a gentle gully into a raging torrent of water. More often than not, however, the rain evaporates into the dry air before ever reaching the ground, and the result is rain streamers (virga) dangling beneath the clouds.

Contrary to popular belief, few deserts are completely without vegetation. Although meager, the vegetation that does exist must depend on the infrequent rains. Thus, most of the native plants are xerophytes— those capable of surviving prolonged periods of drought. Such vegetation includes various forms of cacti and short-lived plants that spring up during the rainy periods.

In low-latitude deserts (BWh), intense sunlight produces scorching heat on the parched landscape. Here, air temperatures are as high as anywhere in the world. Maximum daytime readings during the summer can exceed 50°C (122°F), although 40°C to 45°C (104°F to 113°F) are more common. In the middle of the day, the relative humidity is usually between 5 and 25 percent. At night, the air’s relatively low water vapor content allows for rapid radiational cooling. Minimum temperatures often drop below 25°C (77°F). Thus, arid climates have large daily temperature ranges, often between 15°C and 25°C (27°F and 45°F) and occasionally higher. During the winter, temperatures are more moderate, and minimums may, on occasion, drop below freezing. The variation in temperature from summer to winter pro-produces large annual temperature ranges. We can see this in the climate record for Phoenix, Arizona, a city in the southwestern United States with a BWh climate. Notice that the average annual temperature in Phoenix is 22°C (72°F), and that the average temperature of the warmest month (July) reaches a sizzling 32°C (90°F). As we would expect, rainfall is meager in all months. There is, however, a slight maximum in July and August. This is due to the summer monsoon, when more humid, southerly winds are likely to sweep over the region and develop into afternoon showers and thunderstorms.

In middle-latitude deserts (BWk), average annual temperatures are lower. Summers are typically warm to hot, with afternoon temperatures frequently reaching 40°C (104°F). Winters are usually extremely cold, with minimum temperatures sometimes dropping below –35°C (–31°F). Many of these deserts lie in the rain shadow of an extensive mountain chain, such as the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade mountains in North America, the Himalayan Mountains in Asia, and the Andes in South America. The meager precipitation that falls comes from an occasional summer shower or a passing mid-latitude cyclone in winter.

Around the margins of the arid regions, where rainfall amounts are greater, the climate gradually changes into semi-arid (BS). This region is called steppe and typically has short bunchgrass, scattered low bushes, trees, or sagebrush. In North America, this climatic region includes most of the Great Plains, the southern coastal sections of California, and the northern valleys of the Great Basin. As in the arid region, northern areas experience lower winter temperatures and more frequent snowfalls. Annual precipitation is generally between 20 and 40 cm (8 and 16 in.). The climatic record for Denver, Colorado, exemplifies the semi-arid (BSk) climate.

As average rainfall amounts increase, the climate gradually changes to one that is more humid. Hence, the semi-arid (steppe) climate marks the transition between the arid and the humid climatic regions.

MOIST SUBTROPICAL MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES (GROUP C)

General characteristics: humid with mild winters (i.e., average temperature of the coldest month below 18°C, or 64°F, and above –3°C, or 27°F).

Extent: on the eastern and western regions of most continents, from about 25° to 40° latitude.

Major types: humid subtropical (Cfa), marine (Cfb), and dry-summer subtropical, or Mediterranean (Cs). 

The Group C climates of the middle latitudes have distinct summer and winter seasons. Additionally, they have ample precipitation to keep them from being classified as dry. Although winters can be cold, and air temperatures can change appreciably from one day to the next, no month has a mean temperature below –3°C (27°F), for if it did, it would be classified as a D climate— one with severe winters.

The first C climate we will consider is the humid subtropical climate (Cfa). that Cfa climates are found principally along the east coasts of continents, roughly between 25° and 40° latitude. They dominate the southeastern section of the United States, as well as eastern China and southern Japan. In the Southern Hemisphere, they are found in southeastern South America and along the southeastern coasts of Africa and Australia.

A trademark of the humid subtropical climate is its hot, muggy summers. This sultry summer weather occurs because Cfa climates are located on the western side of subtropical highs, where maritime tropical air from lower latitudes is swept poleward into these regions. Generally, summer dew-point temperatures are high (often exceeding 23°C, or 73°F) and so is the relative humidity, even during the middle of the day. The high humidity combines with the high air temperature (usually above 32°C, or 90°F) to produce more oppressive conditions than are found in equatorial regions. Summer morning low temperatures often range between  21°C and 27°C (70°F and 81°F). Occasionally, a weak summer cool front will bring temporary relief from the sweltering conditions. However, devastating heat waves, sometimes lasting many weeks, can occur when an upper-level ridge moves over the area.

Winters tend to be relatively mild, especially in the lower latitudes, where air temperatures rarely dip much below freezing. Poleward regions experience winters that are colder and harsher. Here, frost, snow, and ice storms are more common, but heavy snowfalls are rare. Winter weather can be quite changeable, as almost summerlike conditions can give way to cold rain and wind in a matter of hours when a middle-latitude storm and its accompanying fronts pass through the region.

Humid subtropical climates experience adequate and fairly well-distributed precipitation throughout the year, with typical annual averages between 80 and 165 cm (31 and 65 in.). In summer, when thunderstorms are common, much of the precipitation falls as afternoon showers. Tropical storms entering the United States and China can substantially add to their summer and autumn rainfall totals. Winter precipitation most often occurs with eastward-trekking middle-latitude storms. In the southeastern United States, the abundant rainfall supports a thick pine forest that becomes mixed with oak at higher latitudes.

C climates extend poleward along the western side of most continents from about latitude 40° to 60°. These regions are dominated by prevailing winds from the ocean that moderate the climate, keeping winters considerably milder than stations located at the same latitude farther inland. In addition to this, summers are quite cool. When the summer season is both short and cool, the climate is designated as Cfc.* Equatorward, where summers are longer (but still cool), the climate is classified as west coast marine, or simply marine, Cfb.

Where mountains parallel the coastline, such as along the west coasts of North and South America, the marine influence is restricted to narrow belts. Unobstructed by high mountains, prevailing westerly winds pump ocean air over much of western Europe and thus provide this region with a marine climate (Cfb). During much of the year, marine climates are characterized by low clouds, fog, and drizzle. The ocean’s influence produces adequate precipitation in all months, with much of it falling as light or moderate rain associated with maritime polar air masses. Snow does fall, but frequently it turns to slush after only a day or so. In some locations, topography greatly enhances precipitation totals. For example, along the west coast of North America, coastal mountains not only force air upward enhancing precipitation, but they also slow the storm’s eastward progress, which enables the storm to drop more precipitation on the area.

Along the northwest coast of North America, rainfall amounts decrease in summer. This phenomenon is caused by the northward migration of the subtropical Pacific high, which is located southwest of this region. The summer decrease in rainfall can be seen by examining the climatic record of Port Hardy, a station situated along the coast of Canada's Vancouver Island. The data illustrate another important characteristic of marine climates: the low annual temperature range for such a high-latitude station. The ocean’s influence keeps daily temperature ranges low as well. In this climate type, it rains on many days and when it is not raining, skies are usually overcast. The heavy rains produce a dense forest of Douglas fir.

Moving equatorward of marine climates, the influence of the subtropical highs becomes greater, and the summer dry period more pronounced. Gradually, the climate changes from marine to one of dry-summer subtropical (Cs), or the Mediterranean, because it also borders the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Along the west coast of North America, Portland, Oregon, because it has rather dry summers, marks the transition between the marine climate and the dry-summer subtropical climate to the south.

Where surface winds parallel the coast, upwelling of cold water helps keep the water itself, and the air above it cool all summer long. In these coastal areas, which are often shrouded in low clouds and fog, the climate is called the coastal Mediterranean (Csb). Here, summer daytime maximum temperatures usually reach about 21°C (70°F), while overnight lows often drop below 15°C (59°F). Inland, away from the ocean’s influence, summers are hot and winters are a little cooler than coastal areas. In this interior Mediterranean climate (Csa), summer afternoon temperatures usually climb above 34°C (93°F) and occasionally above 40°C (104°F).

In Mediterranean climates, yearly precipitation amounts range between 30 and 90 cm (11 and 35 in.). However, much more precipitation falls on surrounding hillsides and mountains. Because of the summer dryness, the land supports only a scrubby type of low-growing woody plants and trees called chaparral.

MOIST CONTINENTAL CLIMATES (GROUP D)

General characteristics: warm-to-cool summers and cold
winters (i.e., average temperature of warmest month exceeds 10°C, or 50°F, and the coldest monthly average drops below –3°C, or 27°F); winters are severe with snowstorms, blustery winds, bitter cold; climate-controlled by large continent.

Extent: north of moist subtropical mid-latitude climates.

Major types: humid continental with hot summers (Dfa), humid continental with cool summers (Dfb), and subpolar (Dfc).

The D climates are controlled by large landmasses. Therefore, they are found only in the Northern Hemisphere. D climate, the average temperature of its coldest month must dip below –3°C (27°F). This is not an arbitrary number. Köppen found that, in Europe, this temperature marked the southern limit of persistent snow cover in winter. Hence, D climates experience a great deal of winter snow that stays on the ground for extended periods. When the temperature drops to a point such that no month has an average temperature of 10°C (50°F), the climate is classified as polar (E). Köppen found that the average monthly temperature of 10°C tended to represent the minimum temperature required for tree growth. So no matter how cold it gets in a D climate (and winters can get extremely cold), there is enough summer warmth to support the growth of trees.

There are two basic types of D climates: the humid continental (Dfa and Dfb) and the subpolar (Dfc).

Humid continental climates are observed from about latitude 40°N to 50°N (60°N in Europe). Here, precipitation is adequate and fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, although interior stations experience maximum precipitation in summer. Annual precipitation totals usually range from 50 to 100 cm (20 to 40 in.). Native vegetation in the wetter regions includes forests of spruce, fir, pine, and oak. In autumn, nature’s pageantry unveils itself as the leaves of deciduous trees turn brilliant shades of red, orange, and yellow.

Humid continental climates are subdivided on the basis of summer temperatures. Where summers are long and hot,* the climate is described as humid continental with hot summers (Dfa). Here summers are often hot and humid, especially in the southern regions. Midday temperatures often exceed 32°C (90°F) and occasionally 40°C (104°F). Summer nights are usually warm and humid, as well. The frost-free season normally lasts from five to six months, long enough to grow a wide variety of crops. Winters tend to be windy, cold, and snowy. Further north, where summers are shorter and not as hot,† the climate is described as humid continental with long cool summers (Dfb). In Dfb climates, summers are not only cooler but much less humid. Temperatures may exceed 35°C (95°F) for a time, but extended hot spells lasting many weeks are rare. The frost-free season is shorter than in the Dfa climate, and normally lasts between three and five months. Winters are long, cold, and windy. It is not uncommon for temperatures to drop below –30°C (–22°F) and stay below –18°C (0°F) for days and sometimes weeks. Autumn is short, with winter often arriving right on the heels of summer. Spring, too, is short, as late spring snowstorms are common, especially in the more northern latitudes.

Precipitation is comparatively light in the subpolar climates, especially in the interior regions, with most places receiving less than 50 cm (20 in.) annually. A good percentage of the precipitation falls when weak cyclonic storms move through the region in summer. The total snowfall is usually not large but the cold air prevents melting, so the snow stays on the ground for months at a time. Because of the low temperatures, there is a low annual rate of evaporation that ensures adequate moisture to support the boreal forests of conifers and birches known as taiga. Hence, the subpolar climate is known also as a boreal climate and as a taiga climate.

POLAR CLIMATES (GROUP E)

General characteristics: year-round low temperatures (i.e., the average temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C, or 50°F).

Extent: northern coastal areas of North America and Eurasia; Greenland and Antarctica.

Major types: polar tundra (ET) and polar ice caps (EF).

In the polar tundra (ET), the average temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F), but above freezing. Here, the ground is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost. Summer weather, however, is just warm enough to thaw out the upper meter or so of soil. Hence, during the summer, the tundra turns swampy and muddy. Annual precipitation on the tundra is meager, with most stations receiving less than 20 cm (8 in.). In lower latitudes, this would constitute a desert, but in the cold polar regions evaporation rates are very low and moisture remains adequate. Because of the extremely short growing season, tundra vegetation consists of mosses, lichens, dwarf trees, and scattered woody vegetation, fully grown and only several centimeters tall.

When the average temperature for every month drops below freezing, plant growth is impossible, and the region is perpetually covered with snow and ice. This climatic type is known as the polar ice cap (EF). It occupies the interior ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica, where the depth of ice in some places measures thousands of meters. In this region, temperatures are never much above freezing, even during the middle of “summer.” The coldest places in the world are located here. Precipitation is extremely meager with many places receiving less than 10 cm (4 in.) annually. Most precipitation falls as snow during the “warmer” summer. Strong downslope katabatic winds frequently whip the snow about, adding to the climate’s harshness.

HIGHLAND CLIMATES (GROUP H)

It is not necessary to visit the polar regions to experience a polar climate. Because temperature decreases with altitude, climatic changes experienced when climbing 300 m (1000 ft) in elevation are about equivalent in high latitudes to horizontal changes experienced when traveling 300 km (186 mi) northward. (This distance is equal to about 3° latitude.) Therefore, when ascending a high mountain, one can travel through many climatic regions in a relatively short distance.